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Ancient valleys suggest a warm early Mars where liquid water flowed, but a greenhouse effect strong enough to offset a dim early Sun has been difficult to explain. Climate simulations suggest that sufficient concentrations of the greenhouse gases CO2 and H2 — outgassed during volcanic eruptions — could have warmed Mars above water’s freezing point.
The Canterbury earthquake sequence that struck New Zealand in 2010 and 2011 was characterized by an extended series of aftershocks. Analysis of seismic data show that a broad region of previously strong crustal rocks was weakened during the mainshock, and variations in crustal strength may have contributed to the protracted seismic activity.
Vast quantities of carbon are stored in shallow Arctic reservoirs, such as subsea and terrestrial permafrost. Observations in the Laptev Sea suggest that bubbles deliver significant quantities of the methane stored in subsea permafrost to the overlying water column.
The surface of Mars is dominated by basalt that has undergone little magmatic evolution. However, minerals now identified in some ancient terrains suggest that extensive magma processing and intrusive volcanism were not uncommon on the red planet.
Volcanoes have been active under the West Antarctic Ice Sheet for millions of years, and there is evidence for recent activity. Now swarms of tiny earthquakes detected in 2010 and 2011 hint at current magma movement in the crust beneath the ice.
Several volcanoes exist in Marie Byrd Land, a highland range in West Antarctica, but none were thought to be currently active. Analysis of seismic data from the region shows that magma could be moving beneath the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, with potential implications for ice flow.
Felsic rocks have not been identified on Mars, a planet that lacks plate tectonics to drive the magmatic processes that lead to evolved silica-rich melts. Spectral observations by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter indicate that felsic lithologies occur at multiple localities on Mars and suggest prolonged magmatic activity on ancient Mars.
The first known phosphorus-rich deposits formed 2 billion years ago, but their origins are unclear. Geochemical and palaeontological analyses of 2-billion-year-old deposits from northwest Russia suggest that the presence of sulphur-oxidizing bacteria and a sharp oxic–anoxic transition in the sediments allowed for phosphorus accumulation in this setting.
The formation of the silicate mineral anorthosite is thought to require magmatic processes that are not expected on Mars because of its predominately mafic terrains. Localized spectral detections by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter are consistent with anorthosite, suggestive of ancient intrusive igneous processes similar to those active on Earth.
Global temperature rise since industrialization has not been uniform. A statistical analysis suggests that past changes in the rate of warming can be directly attributed to human influences, from economic downturns to the regulations of the Montreal Protocol.
The pressures and temperatures experienced by material flung from craters following impact events are expected to preclude survival of organics. The preservation of biomarkers in impact glass from the Darwin crater in Tasmania suggests that organic matter can survive in the distal products of meteorite impact.
The causal connection between human activities and the evolution of climate warming over the past century is not fully understood. A state-of-the-art statistical analysis of time series of temperature and radiative forcing reveals that reductions in ozone-depleting substances and methane have contributed to the slow-down in warming since the late 1990s.
The flow of ductile rocks in the deep crust and uppermost mantle is thought to add stress to faults in the shallow crust, potentially bringing the faults closer to rupture. Measurements of fault offsets in the Italian Apennines show that earthquake recurrence is largely controlled by viscous flow of deeper rocks in localized zones.
Access to metals and minerals is restricted mostly by geopolitical constraints, and not by a shortage of mineable deposits. In the face of rising demand, a full inventory of these commodities — in the Earth's crust as well as in recyclable waste — is urgently required.
Mineable phosphorus reserves are confined to a handful of countries. Reductions in wastage could free up this resource for low-income, food-deficient countries.
Mineral exploration is pushing new frontiers. Given a poor track record on land, mining practises should be honed on home soil before venturing into the oceans.
